Direct & Indirect Speech
🔒 Log in to trackBackshift: the tense conversion table
🔒 Log in to trackWhen the reporting verb is in the past (said, told, asked), every verb inside the quote moves one step back in time. Am becomes was. Will becomes would. Wrote becomes had written. There are two exceptions: a general truth keeps its tense, and some forms never move.
The ladder: one step back
This applies when the reporting verb is past: said, told, asked. Every verb steps down one rung.
| Direct | Indirect |
|---|---|
| am / is / are | was / were |
| write (V1) | wrote (V2) |
| is / are writing | was / were writing |
| has / have written | had written |
| wrote (V2) | had written |
| was / were writing | had been writing |
| will / shall | would / should |
| can | could |
| may | might |
| must (duty) | had to |
| have to | had to |
Example: "I am writing a letter" becomes he said he was writing a letter. "I wrote it" becomes he said he had written it.
The ceiling
A quote already in the past perfect stays as it is. "The train had left" becomes he said the train had left. The same holds for the past perfect continuous. There is no rung above it.
Forms that never move
These are already one step from the present, so they do not shift again:
- would, could, should, might, ought to
- used to, had better, would rather
"I would rather stay home" becomes he said he would rather stay home. Only the pronouns around them change.
Rule: If the quote already has one of these forms, copy it unchanged.
General truths keep their tense
A fact of nature, a habit or a proverb is still true, so it does not move back.
"The earth revolves around the sun" becomes the teacher said that the earth revolves around the sun.
A moment-bound fact does shift: "I am tired" becomes he said he was tired.
Two faults planted in options
- Half-backshift: the frame is said, but the quote still has is, are, will or can. This is the most common wrong option.
- Over-backshift: "I am tired" reported as he had been tired. That is two steps. Simple present goes to simple past only.
Time words move with the tense
When the verb steps back, the time words step back too: tomorrow to the next day, now to then, ago to before. Never move one and leave the other.
A full example, step by step
The clerk said, "I have finished the file, and I will send it tomorrow."
- The reporting verb is said, so the quote steps back.
- Have finished becomes had finished.
- Will send becomes would send.
- Tomorrow becomes the next day. I becomes he.
Result: The clerk said that he had finished the file and would send it the next day.
Which verbs to check
Look at every verb in the quote, not just the first. A quote with two verbs needs two shifts. Also check whether the reporting verb is past or present before you begin.
Watch: Must for duty becomes had to. "I must reach by six" becomes he said he had to reach by six. Must for a guess can stay must.
Question types you will see
Each type: how to recognise it, the method step by step, and one question to try.
Present to past: the first step
The quote is in the simple present or present continuous. Options show was / were (correct), had been (too far) or is / are (no shift).
Confirm that the reporting verb is past.
Step down once: am / is + V-ing becomes was / were + V-ing; V1 becomes V2.
Reject the unshifted present and the over-shifted past perfect continuous.
This first step is the most tested row. Its two wrong neighbours are always in the options.
Select the indirect form: He said, 'I am learning German these days.'
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'Am learning' steps to 'was learning'.
'These days' becomes 'those days'.
'Had been learning' is two steps.
He said that he was learning German those days.
Past to past perfect: the second step
The quote has a simple past or a past continuous verb. Options offer the unshifted past, the had-forms, or a present perfect.
Simple past (V2) becomes had + V3.
Past continuous (was / were + V-ing) becomes had been + V-ing.
A quote already in the past perfect does not move.
The reported event must read as earlier than the act of reporting.
Select the indirect form: The watchman said, 'The lights were flickering all night.'
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'Were flickering' is past continuous.
It steps to 'had been flickering'.
'Had flickered' turns it into a finished act.
The watchman said that the lights had been flickering all night.
Modal shifts (will, can, may, must)
The quote has will, can, may or must. Options give the unshifted modal, a wrong neighbour, or the correct partner.
Use the row: will / shall to would / should; can to could; may to might; must (duty) to had to.
Leave the rest of the verb phrase alone.
Check the time word in the same sweep.
Each modal has one partner one step back. Anything else is a planted neighbour.
Select the indirect form: She said, 'I can solve this puzzle.'
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'Can' steps to 'could'.
'This' becomes 'that'.
'May solve' brings in the wrong modal.
She said that she could solve that puzzle.
No backshift: general truth
The quote is a law of nature, a proverb or a permanent fact. One option backshifts it; the right one keeps the present.
Ask: is this always true, or true only at the moment of speaking?
Always true: keep the tense, even after 'said'.
True only now (I am tired): shift as usual.
Backshift marks a gap in time. A fact that is still true has no gap.
Select the indirect form: The teacher said, 'The sun rises in the east.'
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The sun rising in the east is a law of nature.
So the present tense stays.
'Rose in the east' is the planted backshift.
The teacher said that the sun rises in the east.
Frozen forms: would rather, used to
The quote already has would, could, used to, had better or would rather. The wrong options shift them again.
Spot the frozen form in the quote.
Copy it unchanged.
Change only the pronouns and the time words around it.
Reject 'had used to', 'had rather' and similar.
These forms are already one step from the present, so there is no rung below them.
Select the indirect form: She said, 'I used to swim every morning.'
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'Used to' is a frozen form.
Only the pronoun changes: I becomes she.
'Had used to swim' does not exist.
She said that she used to swim every morning.
Shortcuts that save time
Present goes to past. Present continuous goes to past continuous. Perfect goes to past perfect. Past goes to past perfect. Will goes to would. Can goes to could. May goes to might. Must (duty) goes to had to.
Could, would, should, might and ought to never change. If the quote has one of these, its tense is already right. Any shift is an error.
Select the indirect form: He said, 'I could swim well as a child.'
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The quote has 'could', a frozen form.
Only the pronoun changes: I becomes he.
'as a child' is not a time word that shifts.
He said that he could swim well as a child.
Is the quote a law of nature, a habit or a proverb? Then do not backshift. Write: said that the earth revolves.
Mistakes to avoid
Where most students lose marks on this subtopic.
Moving a past perfect verb up again (had had written).
Past perfect is the ceiling. It stays the same.
Backshifting a law of nature: 'the sun rose in the east'.
A general truth keeps its present tense.
Turning 'must' into 'musted'.
Must (duty) becomes 'had to'. A guess can stay 'must'.
Changing 'could' back to 'can' or forward to 'had could'.
Could, would, should, might and ought to stay as they are.
Shifting the verb but leaving 'tomorrow' or 'today' in the sentence.
Move the tense and the time word together.
Quick revision
Read this the night before the exam.
One step back: am to was; write to wrote; was writing to had been writing; wrote to had written.
will to would; can to could; may to might; must (duty) to had to.
Past perfect stays past perfect.
No shift for general truths, a present reporting verb, and would, could, should, might, ought to, used to, had better, would rather.
Half-backshift and over-backshift are the two planted faults. Count the steps.
If the verb moved, the time word must move too.
Practice: 12 questions
Sets of 10, mixed across the question types above. Every answer has a step-by-step explanation.
Topic test · 12 questions
Suggested time 7 min · wrong answers go to your mistake notebook automatically.