Modern Indian History
🔒 Log in to trackEuropeans in India & British Expansion
🔒 Log in to trackEuropean companies came to India by sea to trade, starting in 1498. The English East India Company slowly changed from a trader into a ruler. Two battles, Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764), gave it Bengal. Exams ask who came when, what each battle decided, and which Governor-General did what.
The Europeans arrive
Five European powers came to trade. Learn them in the order they arrived.
| Power | Year | Remember |
|---|---|---|
| Portuguese | 1498 | Vasco da Gama landed near Calicut (Kappad); the ruler was the Zamorin. Albuquerque took Goa (1510). |
| English | 31 Dec 1600 | Charter from Elizabeth I. First permanent factory at Surat (1613), after a naval win over the Portuguese. |
| Dutch | 1602 | VOC; Pulicat, Masulipatnam. Lost to the English at Bedara (1759). |
| Danish | 1616 | Tranquebar, Serampore |
| French | 1664 | Company formed under Colbert; Pondicherry (1674); Dupleix was the key governor |
The English then built three presidencies: Madras (1639), Bombay (1668, part of Charles II's dowry) and Calcutta (1690, Job Charnock).
Tip: Order of arrival: Portuguese, English, Dutch, Danish, French. Remember "Please Eat Dal, Don't Fight".
Plassey and Buxar: from trader to ruler
The Company first beat the French, then took Bengal.
| Battle | Date | What happened |
|---|---|---|
| Plassey | 23 June 1757 | Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah. Mir Jafar betrayed Siraj. |
| Wandiwash | 1760 | Eyre Coote defeated the French general Lally. This ended French hopes (Third Carnatic War). |
| Buxar | 22 Oct 1764 | Hector Munro defeated three rulers together: Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula and Emperor Shah Alam II. |
The Treaty of Allahabad (1765) gave the Company the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Diwani means the right to collect revenue. It did not mean owning the land. Clive then ran a "dual government" (1765–72). Warren Hastings ended it.
Wars that built the empire
| Wars | Years | Result |
|---|---|---|
| Anglo-Mysore (four wars) | 1767–1799 | Fought against Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan, the "Tiger of Mysore". Tipu died defending Srirangapatna in 1799 (Fourth war, Wellesley's time). |
| Anglo-Maratha (three wars) | 1775–1818 | First war ended by the Treaty of Salbai (1782). The third war ended Peshwa rule (1818). |
| Anglo-Sikh (two wars) | 1845–49 | Fought after Ranjit Singh's death (1839). Punjab annexed 1849 (Dalhousie). |
Other gains: Sind (1843, Napier), Burma, and Awadh (1856), taken "for misgovernment".
Two tools of annexation
- Subsidiary Alliance (Wellesley, 1798): an Indian ruler kept Company troops at his cost. He lost his independence. The Nizam of Hyderabad signed first.
- Doctrine of Lapse (Dalhousie): if a ruler died without a son, an adopted heir was not accepted. The state "lapsed" to the Company. Examples: Satara, Jaitpur, Sambalpur, Udaipur, Jhansi, Nagpur.
Watch: Awadh was annexed for "misgovernment", not under the Doctrine of Lapse.
Governors-General and Viceroys
| Name | Remember for |
|---|---|
| Warren Hastings | First Governor-General of Bengal (Regulating Act 1773). Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784, founded by William Jones). Pitt's India Act 1784 added dual control. |
| Cornwallis (1786–93) | Permanent Settlement (1793); police and judicial reforms; "father of the civil services" |
| Wellesley | Subsidiary Alliance (1798) |
| William Bentinck (1828–35) | First Governor-General of India (Charter Act 1833); sati abolished (1829); English Education Act 1835 (Macaulay's Minute); thuggee suppressed |
| Dalhousie (1848–56) | Doctrine of Lapse; first railway Bombay–Thane (16 April 1853); telegraph; postage; engineering colleges; Wood's Despatch (1854) |
| Canning | Last Governor-General and first Viceroy (1858) |
| Lytton | Delhi Durbar 1877 (Victoria made "Empress of India"); Vernacular Press Act 1878; Arms Act |
| Ripon | "Father of local self-government" (1882); Ilbert Bill (1883); first synchronous census (1881) |
| Dufferin | Congress founded (1885) |
| Curzon | Partition of Bengal (1905); Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904) |
| Hardinge II | 1911: capital to shift to Delhi; partition annulled |
| Mountbatten | Last Viceroy; first Governor-General of free India |
C. Rajagopalachari was the last, and the only Indian, Governor-General.
Three land-revenue systems
| System | Region | Who and how |
|---|---|---|
| Permanent Settlement (1793) | Bengal, Bihar, Odisha | Cornwallis. Zamindars became landowners. Revenue fixed forever. |
| Ryotwari | Madras, Bombay | Reed and Thomas Munro. Deal made directly with the ryot (the farmer). |
| Mahalwari | North-Western Provinces, Central India, parts of Punjab | Holt Mackenzie, 1822. Deal made with the village estate (mahal). |
Question types you will see
Each type: how to recognise it, the method step by step, and one question to try.
Plassey → Buxar → Diwani chain
The question names Plassey, Buxar, Mir Jafar, Shah Alam II or the Treaty of Allahabad.
Plassey 1757 = Clive against Siraj-ud-Daulah; Mir Jafar betrayed.
Buxar 1764 = Hector Munro against Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula and Shah Alam II.
Treaty of Allahabad 1765 = Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa.
Match the name in the question to one of these three lines.
These three events form one chain, so each fact points to the next.
The Battle of Buxar (1764) was fought against a combined army of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula and: (a) Siraj-ud-Daulah (b) Shah Alam II (c) Tipu Sultan (d) Mir Jafar
Show solutionHide solution
Siraj-ud-Daulah fought at Plassey, so cut (a).
Mir Jafar was the traitor at Plassey, so cut (d).
Tipu fought the Mysore wars, so cut (c).
(b) Emperor Shah Alam II
Anglo-Mysore, Anglo-Maratha and Anglo-Sikh wars
Words like "Tipu Sultan died in", "which war ended Maratha power", "Punjab was annexed in".
Mysore: four wars; Tipu died at Srirangapatna, 1799.
Marathas: three wars; Treaty of Salbai (1782) ended the first; power ended 1818.
Sikhs: two wars; Punjab annexed 1849 under Dalhousie.
Each group of wars has one number and one end year; that is what the options test.
Tipu Sultan was killed in 1799 while defending:
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1799 is the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War.
Tipu died defending his capital.
Srirangapatna
Governor-General ↔ measure
"Sati was abolished by", "Vernacular Press Act was passed by", "first railway under" — a measure and a ruler.
Recall the one-line table: Cornwallis, Wellesley, Bentinck, Dalhousie, Lytton, Ripon, Curzon.
Check the year given in the question against the ruler's time.
In "wrongly matched" questions, look for a measure swapped with a neighbour.
Each Governor-General is remembered for one or two measures, so the pair decides the answer.
The Vernacular Press Act (1878) was passed during the time of: (a) Ripon (b) Lytton (c) Curzon (d) Dalhousie
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1878 falls between Dalhousie (1850s) and Ripon (1880s).
Ripon repealed the Act in 1882, so cut (a).
Lytton held the Delhi Durbar in 1877 and passed this Act in 1878.
(b) Lord Lytton
Land-revenue systems
Words like zamindar, ryot, mahal, Permanent Settlement, Thomas Munro or Holt Mackenzie.
Permanent Settlement 1793: Cornwallis, Bengal-Bihar-Odisha, zamindars.
Ryotwari: Reed and Thomas Munro, Madras and Bombay, each farmer.
Mahalwari: Holt Mackenzie 1822, North-West, village estate.
The name of each system tells you who pays: zamindar, ryot or mahal.
The Ryotwari system, which settled revenue directly with each farmer, was mainly used in:
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"Ryot" means the farmer.
Ryotwari is linked with Reed and Thomas Munro in the south and west.
Madras and Bombay presidencies
European arrival: who came where and when
"Vasco da Gama landed at", "first English factory", "French headquarters", or a list of European powers.
Recall the arrival table: Portuguese 1498, English 1600, Dutch 1602, Danish 1616, French 1664.
Attach one place to each: Calicut, Surat, Pulicat, Tranquebar, Pondicherry.
Pick the option that matches both the power and the place.
Each power has one landmark year and one landmark place.
The English East India Company set up its first permanent factory at: (a) Calicut (b) Surat (c) Pondicherry (d) Goa
Show solutionHide solution
Calicut = Vasco da Gama (Portuguese), so cut (a).
Pondicherry = French; Goa = Portuguese under Albuquerque.
(b) Surat (1613)
Arrange in chronological order
"Arrange the following in the correct order" with 3 or 4 battles, treaties or measures.
Write the year next to each item.
Find the earliest item and check which options start with it.
Check the last item to split any options that remain.
Checking only the first and last items usually leaves one option, which saves time.
Arrange in order: 1. Treaty of Allahabad 2. Battle of Plassey 3. Battle of Wandiwash 4. Battle of Buxar
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Years: Allahabad 1765, Plassey 1757, Wandiwash 1760, Buxar 1764.
Earliest is Plassey (2); latest is Allahabad (1).
2, 3, 4, 1
First and last titles
"First Governor-General of Bengal/India", "first Viceroy", "last Viceroy", "only Indian Governor-General".
First GG of Bengal = Warren Hastings (1773).
First GG of India = William Bentinck (1833).
Last GG and first Viceroy = Canning (1858).
Last Viceroy = Mountbatten; last and only Indian GG = C. Rajagopalachari.
The title changed twice (1833 and 1858), so read the exact title in the question.
Who was the first Governor-General of India?
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"Of India" (not "of Bengal") starts with the Charter Act of 1833.
Warren Hastings was GG of Bengal, so he is the trap option.
Lord William Bentinck
Shortcuts that save time
1757 Plassey gave the British a foothold (Clive beat Siraj). 1764 Buxar sealed control (three rulers beaten). The Diwani followed in 1765.
Which battle was fought against the combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula and Shah Alam II?
Show solutionHide solution
Three rulers fought together.
Only Buxar had three Indian rulers on one side.
Battle of Buxar (1764)
Cornwallis Settles (1793) → Wellesley Subsidises (1798) → Bentinck bans Sati (1829) → Ripon starts Local self-government (1882).
Mistakes to avoid
Where most students lose marks on this subtopic.
Calling Warren Hastings the first Governor-General of India.
Warren Hastings = first GG of Bengal (1773). Bentinck = first GG of India (1833). Canning = first Viceroy (1858).
Placing the Ilbert Bill in Curzon's time.
The Ilbert Bill (1883) belongs to Ripon.
Saying the English set up their first factory at Calicut.
The English factory was at Surat. Calicut is where Vasco da Gama landed.
Thinking the Diwani (1765) made the Company owner of the land.
Diwani was only the right to collect revenue in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
Putting Awadh (1856) under the Doctrine of Lapse.
Awadh was annexed for misgovernment. Lapse states include Satara, Jhansi and Nagpur.
Mixing Ryotwari and Mahalwari.
Ryotwari = deal with each ryot (Madras, Bombay). Mahalwari = deal with the village mahal (North-West).
Quick revision
Read this the night before the exam.
Arrival: Portuguese 1498, English 1600, Dutch 1602, Danish 1616, French 1664.
Plassey 1757 (Mir Jafar's betrayal) → Buxar 1764 (three rulers) → Diwani 1765 (Treaty of Allahabad).
Tipu died at Srirangapatna 1799; Peshwa rule ended 1818; Punjab annexed 1849.
Wellesley = Subsidiary Alliance; Dalhousie = Doctrine of Lapse + railways (1853).
Cornwallis = Permanent Settlement 1793; Bentinck = sati abolished 1829.
Lytton = Vernacular Press Act 1878; Ripon = local self-government 1882; Curzon = Bengal partition 1905.
Revenue: Permanent (Cornwallis), Ryotwari (Munro), Mahalwari (Holt Mackenzie).
Practice: 13 questions
Sets of 10, mixed across the question types above. Every answer has a step-by-step explanation.
Topic test · 13 questions
Suggested time 5 min · wrong answers go to your mistake notebook automatically.