Medieval Indian History
🔒 Log in to trackEarly Medieval India (c. 750–1206)
🔒 Log in to trackAfter Harsha, north India broke into many kingdoms. Three big powers fought for Kannauj: the Palas, the Gurjara-Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas. Then came the Arab, Ghaznavid and Ghori attacks in the north-west. In the far south, the Cholas built a strong empire with a famous system of village self-government.
The three powers and the fight for Kannauj
From the 8th century, three kingdoms fought for the city of Kannauj. This is the tripartite struggle.
| Power | Region | Key facts |
|---|---|---|
| Palas | Bengal and Bihar | Gopala was chosen king by the chiefs (c. 750). Dharmapala founded Vikramashila and revived Nalanda. Buddhist patrons. |
| Gurjara-Pratiharas | Malwa and Rajasthan (west) | Nagabhata I stopped the Arab advance. Mihira Bhoja (Adivaraha coins) is the best-known ruler. |
| Rashtrakutas | Deccan | Founder Dantidurga. Capital Manyakheta. Krishna I built the Kailasa temple at Ellora. Amoghavarsha I wrote Kavirajamarga in Kannada. |
Tip: Say "PPR fight for K": Pala, Pratihara, Rashtrakuta fight for Kannauj.
Sindh, Ghazni and Ghori
Three attacks came from the north-west. Learn them as a short timeline.
| Who | Year | What happened |
|---|---|---|
| Muhammad bin Qasim | 712 CE | Arab conquest of Sindh. He defeated Raja Dahir. |
| Mahmud of Ghazni | 1000-1027 | 17 raids. He sacked the Somnath temple in 1025. |
| Muhammad Ghori | 1191 | First Battle of Tarain. He lost to Prithviraj Chauhan. |
| Muhammad Ghori | 1192 | Second Battle of Tarain. He won. |
| Muhammad Ghori | 1194 | Chandawar. He defeated Jaichand of Kannauj (Gahadavala). |
Al-Biruni came with Mahmud of Ghazni. He wrote Kitab-ul-Hind.
Watch: Somnath was raided by Mahmud of Ghazni (1025), not by Muhammad Ghori.
Rajput houses and their marks
| House | Region | Remember for |
|---|---|---|
| Chauhans (Chahamanas) | Ajmer and Delhi | Prithviraj III, the two Battles of Tarain |
| Gahadavalas | Kannauj and Varanasi | Jaichand |
| Paramaras | Malwa (Dhar) | Raja Bhoja, the scholar-king; Bhojpur |
| Chandelas | Bundelkhand | Khajuraho temples |
| Solankis (Chalukyas of Gujarat) | Gujarat | Somnath, Dilwara (Mt Abu), Modhera Sun temple era |
| Tomaras | Delhi region | Founded Dhillika (Delhi) |
| Senas | Bengal | Lakshmanasena; his capital fell to Bakhtiyar Khalji |
Two writers of the age: Kalhana wrote the Rajatarangini (12th century), the first proper history in Sanskrit. Chand Bardai was Prithviraj's court poet and wrote Prithviraj Raso.
The Cholas at their height
The Chola line grew strong when Vijayalaya captured Thanjavur (c. 850).
- Rajaraja I won Sri Lanka and the Maldives. He built the Brihadeshwara (Rajarajeshwara) temple at Thanjavur.
- Rajendra I marched to the Ganga and took the title Gangaikonda. He built the capital Gangaikondacholapuram.
- Rajendra I also sent a naval expedition against Srivijaya, the Shailendra kingdom of Sumatra and the Malay peninsula. The aim was to guard the China trade.
The Chola navy, the Nataraja bronzes and temple building mark the peak of the age.
Village self-rule: Uttaramerur
The Uttaramerur inscriptions date from Parantaka I's reign. They show how village committees, called variyams, were picked.
- Candidates were checked for age, property and learning.
- Names were written on tickets and drawn from a pot. This is the kudavolai (pot-ticket) system.
- A member could be removed for misconduct.
Village assemblies came in three kinds: the ur (common villages), the sabha (Brahmadeya villages) and the nagaram (merchant towns).
Rule: Uttaramerur + Parantaka I = kudavolai lottery and variyam committees.
Other regional powers
- Eastern Gangas (Odisha): Narasimhadeva I built the Konark Sun Temple.
- Hoysalas: capital Dorasamudra (Halebidu). Temples at Belur, Halebidu and Somnathpura.
- Kakatiyas (Warangal): ruled for a time by the woman ruler Rani Rudramadevi.
- Western Chalukyas of Kalyani: Vikramaditya VI fought the Cholas for the Tungabhadra doab.
- Yadavas: held Devagiri until Alauddin Khalji's raids.
Question types you will see
Each type: how to recognise it, the method step by step, and one question to try.
Tripartite struggle and the three powers
The question names Kannauj, Gopala, Dharmapala, Nagabhata I, Dantidurga or Amoghavarsha.
Place the name in its power: Pala, Pratihara or Rashtrakuta.
Recall the region: Bengal-Bihar, Malwa-Rajasthan or Deccan.
In statement questions, check which dynasty each fact belongs to.
Each ruler belongs to exactly one of the three powers, so the region gives the answer.
Which Pala ruler founded the Vikramashila monastery? (a) Gopala (b) Dharmapala (c) Nagabhata I (d) Dantidurga
Show solutionHide solution
Gopala founded the Pala line, so he is not the builder.
Nagabhata I was a Pratihara and Dantidurga a Rashtrakuta.
Dharmapala founded Vikramashila and revived Nalanda.
(b) Dharmapala
Chola rulers and their achievements
Words like Thanjavur, Gangaikonda, Srivijaya, Brihadeshwara or Vijayalaya.
Recall the chain: Vijayalaya, Rajaraja I, Rajendra I.
Rajaraja I: Brihadeshwara temple, Sri Lanka and Maldives.
Rajendra I: Gangaikonda title, Gangaikondacholapuram, navy against Srivijaya.
Each Chola ruler has one or two signature deeds, and the options mix them.
Which Chola ruler sent a naval expedition against the Srivijaya kingdom?
Show solutionHide solution
Srivijaya was in Sumatra and the Malay peninsula.
The raid guarded the China trade and belongs to Rajendra I.
Rajendra I
Chola village administration
Words like Uttaramerur, kudavolai, variyam, ur, sabha or nagaram.
Link Uttaramerur to Parantaka I.
Kudavolai means names drawn from a pot.
Match the assembly to its people: ur (common), sabha (Brahmadeya), nagaram (merchants).
The three assembly names each point to one kind of settlement.
Under the Chola kudavolai system, village committee members were chosen by:
Show solutionHide solution
Kudavolai means pot-ticket.
Names of eligible candidates were drawn from a pot.
Drawing lots (tickets) from a pot
Rajput and regional kingdoms: house, capital, ruler
A dynasty, a temple or a ruler to match: Khajuraho, Konark, Rudramadevi, Bhoja, Jaichand.
Recall the table: Chauhan, Gahadavala, Paramara, Chandela, Solanki, Sena.
For the south and Deccan: Kakatiya, Hoysala, Eastern Ganga.
Match the temple to its builder-dynasty before you answer.
Dynasty, region and monument come as a fixed set, so one known item gives the rest.
Rani Rudramadevi, a rare woman ruler of the medieval age, belonged to which dynasty?
Show solutionHide solution
Warangal was a capital of one dynasty.
That dynasty is the Kakatiyas.
The Kakatiyas of Warangal
Invasions from the north-west: who, when, where
Words like 712, Somnath, 17 raids, Tarain, Chandawar, Raja Dahir or Jaichand.
Sindh 712: Muhammad bin Qasim, Raja Dahir.
Ghazni: 17 raids (1000-1027), Somnath 1025.
Ghori: Tarain 1191 (lost), Tarain 1192 (won), Chandawar 1194 (Jaichand).
Match the year or place to its invader.
The three invaders are easy to swap, but each has its own dates and places.
Muhammad Ghori defeated Jaichand of Kannauj in the Battle of: (a) Tarain 1191 (b) Tarain 1192 (c) Chandawar (d) Somnath
Show solutionHide solution
Jaichand was the Gahadavala ruler of Kannauj.
Both Tarain battles were against Prithviraj.
The 1194 battle at Chandawar was against Jaichand.
(c) Chandawar (1194)
Writers and works of the age
"Who wrote Rajatarangini / Kavirajamarga / Kitab-ul-Hind / Prithviraj Raso?"
Kalhana: Rajatarangini (Sanskrit, Kashmir).
Amoghavarsha I: Kavirajamarga (Kannada).
Al-Biruni: Kitab-ul-Hind. Chand Bardai: Prithviraj Raso.
Each work has one author, and the language or region usually helps you spot it.
The Rajatarangini, the first proper historical work in Sanskrit, was written by:
Show solutionHide solution
It is a chronicle of Kashmir from the 12th century.
Its author is Kalhana.
Kalhana
Shortcuts that save time
Pala, Pratihara, Rashtrakuta fight for Kannauj. East, west and south all wanted the centre.
Which of these was NOT part of the tripartite struggle: Pala, Pratihara, Chola, Rashtrakuta?
Show solutionHide solution
The three were Pala, Pratihara and Rashtrakuta.
Chola is the odd one out.
Chola
1191, the first battle: Prithviraj wins. 1192, the second battle: Ghori wins. The second number goes to the invader.
Mistakes to avoid
Where most students lose marks on this subtopic.
Giving the Somnath raid to Muhammad Ghori.
Somnath was sacked by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1025.
Saying Al-Biruni came with Muhammad Ghori.
Al-Biruni came with Mahmud of Ghazni and wrote Kitab-ul-Hind.
Crediting the 712 conquest of Sindh to Mahmud.
Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh in 712 CE and beat Raja Dahir.
Mixing up the two Tarain results.
1191 was won by Prithviraj. 1192 was won by Ghori.
Placing the Brihadeshwara temple under Rajendra I.
Rajaraja I built it. Rajendra I took the Gangaikonda title.
Quick revision
Read this the night before the exam.
Tripartite struggle: Pala (Bengal), Pratihara (west), Rashtrakuta (Deccan). The prize was Kannauj.
Gopala was chosen Pala king (c. 750). Dharmapala founded Vikramashila.
Sindh 712 (Muhammad bin Qasim). Ghazni raids 1000-1027, Somnath 1025. Tarain 1191 and 1192, Chandawar 1194.
Chola chain: Vijayalaya (Thanjavur, c. 850), then Rajaraja I (Brihadeshwara), then Rajendra I (Gangaikonda, navy against Srivijaya).
Uttaramerur (Parantaka I): kudavolai lottery, variyam committees. Assemblies: ur, sabha, nagaram.
Capitals and temples: Hoysala at Dorasamudra, Kakatiya at Warangal, Ganga at Konark, Chandela at Khajuraho.
Practice: 14 questions
Sets of 10, mixed across the question types above. Every answer has a step-by-step explanation.
Topic test · 10 questions
Suggested time 4 min · wrong answers go to your mistake notebook automatically.